# Gambling

Britain publishes the gambling industry every quarter, sector by sector: £16.8 billion of gross gambling yield in FY2024-25, £3,831 million of duty in 2025-26, 8,148 premises and 191,325 machines at the end of 2025. It cannot agree how many adults are harmed by it, has not published a count of gambling related deaths since 2016, and does not record gambling as a cause anywhere in its insolvency statistics.

Source page: https://britishresilienceindex.com/deep-dive/gambling
Machine readable data: https://britishresilienceindex.com/data/deep-dive/gambling.json

## How to read this

The money on this page is computed from HM Revenue and Customs and Gambling Commission data files and reconciled against each publisher's own headline. The harm figures are quoted from the surveys and reports that publish them, with the publisher and the vintage attached, because in several cases no data file exists. Where two official sources disagree, both are shown. Nothing here is an estimate of our own.

## The law tells the regulator to permit gambling

The Gambling Act 2005 has never been amended on this point. It gives the Gambling Commission three licensing objectives and a duty with two limbs: to pursue those objectives, and to permit gambling so far as that is reasonably consistent with them. Preventing harm to adults in general is not among the objectives, and no council may refuse a betting shop on the ground that the town already has enough of them. That is the frame every number below sits in: an apparatus built to license and to tax, and never asked to count what happens next.

**Quotes**

| cite | text | note |
|---|---|---|
| Gambling Act 2005, section 1 | (a) preventing gambling from being a source of crime or disorder, being associated with crime or disorder or being used to support crime, (b) ensuring that gambling is conducted in a fair and open way, and (c) protecting children and other vulnerable persons from being harmed or exploited by gambling. | The only reference to harm is confined to children and other vulnerable persons. There is no general harm prevention or public health objective. |
| Gambling Act 2005, section 22 | In exercising its functions under this Act the Commission shall aim (a) to pursue, and wherever appropriate to have regard to, the licensing objectives, and (b) to permit gambling, in so far as the Commission thinks it reasonably consistent with pursuit of the licensing objectives. | Section 153 places the same duty to aim to permit on licensing authorities. |
| Gambling Act 2005, section 153(2) | In determining whether to grant a premises licence a licensing authority may not have regard to the expected demand for the facilities which it is proposed to provide. | A council cannot refuse a premises licence on the ground that there are already enough betting shops in the area. |

- **Note**: The 2023 white paper, High stakes: gambling reform for the digital age, proposed more than 60 measures and did not propose changing the objectives. It affirmed them.

## £16.8 billion, reported sector by sector

Operators report to the Gambling Commission and pay duty to HM Revenue and Customs, so the size of the industry is one of the better measured quantities in British public data. It is published quarterly, split by sector, and the components reconcile with the totals. The seven duties below sum to £3,616.3 million before rounding, against the £3,616 million that HMRC publishes separately as the year's receipts. Adding the rounded figures as printed gives a total a hundred thousand pounds lower, which is what rounding seven numbers does and is left visible rather than hidden.

**Duty rows**

| label | value | display | framing |
|---|---|---|---|
| Remote Gaming Duty | 1,162.5 | £1,162.5m | online casino, bingo and gaming; the largest single duty since 2023-24 |
| Lottery Duty | 931.9 | £931.9m | the National Lottery and other lotteries |
| General Betting Duty | 713.9 | £713.9m | betting, remote and in premises |
| Machine Games Duty | 609.2 | £609.2m | gaming machines in premises |
| Gaming Duty | 165.4 | £165.4m | casino table games |
| Bingo Duty | 25.2 | £25.2m | abolished from 1 April 2026 |
| Pool Betting Duty | 8.1 | £8.1m | pools and totalisator betting |

- **Duty note**: FY2024-25, HMRC UK Betting and Gaming Statistics. Total receipts reached £3,831 million in 2025-26, up from £2,116 million in 2014-15. Remote Gaming Duty rises from 21 per cent to 40 per cent on 1 April 2026 and a new 25 per cent remote rate of General Betting Duty follows on 1 April 2027; HMRC scores the package at £810 million in 2026-27 rising to £1,155 million by 2030-31.
**Remote share**

| fy | sharePct | shareExLotteriesPct |
|---|---|---|
| 2015-16 | 31.4 | 43.8 |
| 2016-17 | 34.7 | 46.1 |
| 2017-18 | 37.1 | 49.1 |
| 2018-19 | 36.9 | 49.4 |
| 2019-20 | 40.4 | 56.4 |
| 2020-21 | 54 | 80.5 |
| 2021-22 | 44.5 | 63 |
| 2022-23 | 42.8 | 59.1 |
| 2023-24 | 44.1 | 59.8 |
| 2024-25 | 46.5 | 61.8 |

- **Remote share note**: Remote gross gambling yield as a share of yield excluding the National Lottery and other lotteries. The series starts at FY2015-16 because November 2014 brought offshore operators into the statistics for the first time, which makes FY2014-15 a hybrid year and everything before it a different population.
**Estate rows**

| label | value | display |
|---|---|---|
| Betting shops | 5,669 | 5,669 |
| Adult gaming centres | 1,458 | 1,458 |
| Bingo premises | 718 | 718 |
| Family entertainment centres | 165 | 165 |
| Casinos | 138 | 138 |

- **Estate note**: Active premises at the end of December 2025, summing to 8,148. They hold 191,325 gaming machines between them, and bingo premises hold more of those machines (74,439) than betting shops do (22,291).

## What happened when a stake limit met a tax line

In April 2019 the maximum stake on a fixed odds betting terminal fell from £100 to £2. Those machines were taxed at the higher rate of Machine Games Duty, so the effect landed in a tax series that HMRC publishes to five decimal places. It is the clearest picture in British official data of what a stake limit does to a revenue stream, and it exists only because the thing being measured was money.

**Before**: fy 2018-19, display £432.7m

**After**: fy 2019-20, display £31.4m

- **Fall pct**: 93
- **Note**: Higher rate Machine Games Duty liabilities fell 93 per cent in one year. Over the same period Remote Gaming Duty kept climbing, from £531.2 million in 2018-19 to £705.9 million in 2019-20 and £1,162.5 million by 2024-25. Displacement to online is plausible and these two series do not demonstrate it. They are shown side by side, not joined up.

## Three official surveys, a sixfold gap, and no agreed explanation

The Problem Gambling Severity Index scores nine questions from 0 to 27, and a score of 8 or more is the standard threshold for the most serious category. Two sets of official statistics measure how many British adults are above it. They do not agree, and the difference is not small.

**Readings**

| survey | value | detail | status |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gambling Survey for Great Britain, 2025 | 2.4% | adults 18+, Great Britain, confidence interval 1.9 to 2.8 per cent | Official statistics, not accredited. Online, self completed, invitation mentions gambling. |
| Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey, 2023/4 | 0.4% | adults 16+, England | Accredited official statistics. Face to face, interviewer administered, presented as a health survey. |
| Health Survey for England, 2021 | 0.3% | adults 16+, England | Accredited official statistics. Face to face. |

**Timeline**

| date | event |
|---|---|
| July 2023 | Main stage fieldwork begins on the Gambling Survey for Great Britain, a push to web survey replacing the interviewer administered series. |
| February 2024 | Professor Patrick Sturgis assesses the new survey as exemplary in all respects, and warns of a non-negligible risk that it substantially overstates the true level of gambling and gambling harm. The Commission's press release announcing the assessment does not mention the warning. |
| May 2025 | The Office for Statistics Regulation publishes a compliance review with nine recommendations, finding that the Sturgis conclusion on overstatement is absent from the statistical releases themselves, and asking for it to be communicated within them. |
| August 2025 | A randomised experiment finds that a gambling framed invitation and online self completion together add roughly 5 to 6 percentage points to estimates of a PGSI score above zero. The authors conclude that approximately a third of the difference remains unaccounted for. The Commission says the findings greatly increase its confidence. |
| October 2025 | The Commission relaxes its own guidance, removing the advice against grossing estimates up to whole population numbers. Its worked examples now do exactly that. |
| July 2026 | The third annual report is published. It carries the comparability warning and a pointer to the technical report. It does not state the overstatement conclusion the regulator asked for. |

## Where the harm is concentrated

Whatever the true level, the shape inside the survey is consistent and steep, and the gradient across the bands is far larger than the gap between the surveys. The two charts that follow cover people who gambled in the past 12 months, grouped by their PGSI score and reporting on themselves. The deprivation chart below them has a different base again, and says so.

**Severe**

| band | value | display |
|---|---|---|
| PGSI 0 | 0.4 | 0.4% |
| PGSI 1 to 2 | 1.2 | 1.2% |
| PGSI 3 to 7 | 5.4 | 5.4% |
| PGSI 8 to 27 | 46.3 | 46.3% |

- **Severe note**: Reported one or more severe consequence in the past 12 months due to their own gambling: losing something of significant financial value, relationship breakdown, experiencing violence or abuse, or committing a crime to finance gambling. Base: people who gambled in the past 12 months, Great Britain. Unweighted bases 9,750, 1,440, 576 and 336.
**Help**

| band | value | display |
|---|---|---|
| PGSI 0 | 0.8 | 0.8% |
| PGSI 1 to 2 | 3 | 3.0% |
| PGSI 3 to 7 | 9.1 | 9.1% |
| PGSI 8 to 27 | 47.3 | 47.3% |

- **Help note**: Sought any help, support or information in the past 12 months due to their own gambling, from mental health services, food banks or welfare organisations, relationship counselling or gambling support services. Base: people who gambled in the past 12 months, Great Britain. Even in the highest band, more than half sought nothing.
**Deprivation**

| band | value | display |
|---|---|---|
| Most deprived fifth | 4.5 | 4.5% |
| Second | 2.8 | 2.8% |
| Third | 2.2 | 2.2% |
| Fourth | 1.4 | 1.4% |
| Least deprived fifth | 1.2 | 1.2% |

## What Britain does not count

Each entry below is a negative finding, checked at the source that would hold the answer if it existed. Some of these quantities are genuinely hard to measure, and the coroner's record is the clearest case. Others were counted once and stopped, or are collected and not published, or have never had a field defined for them. One of the five is now changing: NHS England has said providers will be required to submit treatment data to the Mental Health Services Data Set, in the future tense and without a stated start date.

| question | status | detail |
|---|---|---|
| How many people have died by suicide in connection with gambling? | Counted once, to 2016, and flagged as an undercount | The Office for National Statistics has published one figure, in an ad hoc release in 2018: 21 suicides across the whole of 2001 to 2016 in England and Wales where the death certificate mentioned gambling. Its own caveat says the coroner will not always record that detail, so the figures are likely to be an undercount. Nothing has been published for 2017 onwards. The 2024 registrations bulletin, covering 6,190 suicides, does not mention gambling at all, and the near real time suspected suicide surveillance run by the Office for Health Improvement and Disparities records age group, sex and method only. In 2023 that office stated there is no official data or registries reporting the number of deaths by suicide associated with or caused by harmful gambling in England. |
| How often does gambling cause insolvency? | Not a field in the official statistics | The word gambling does not appear in the Insolvency Service's Guide to Insolvency Statistics. A cause of insolvency is recorded, from a coding frame, but the guide says that information is not currently considered suitable for use in official statistics, and it is captured only for bankruptcies handled by the official receiver. Bankruptcies were 780 of the 10,843 individual insolvencies in England and Wales in January 2026; the rest were debt relief orders and individual voluntary arrangements, where no cause is recorded at all. The one place gambling was ever officially counted was a misconduct allegation category, gambling, rash and hazardous speculation or unreasonable extravagance, which ran to 33 allegations in 2022-23. That series has since been discontinued. |
| How long do people wait for NHS gambling treatment, and does it work? | No statistical series exists | The NHS has commissioned specialist gambling services since the Long Term Plan of 2019 and now runs eight regional services. There is no accredited or official statistics publication on gambling treatment, no published waiting times and no published outcomes. Referral counts have been published only twice and never as a statistical series: three years in a press release of July 2023, and two more through a supplementary information page, explicitly not an official statistic, which has since been withdrawn from the NHS digital site and now resolves to the National Archives. NHS England's own letter to integrated care boards in February 2026 says providers will be required to submit data to the Mental Health Services Data Set, in the future tense, and lists reducing waiting times as a purpose of the new funding, which confirms that waits exist and are unpublished. |
| How many people work in gambling? | The regulator stopped counting in 2020 | The Gambling Commission's last published workforce figure is 98,174, provisional, as at 30 September 2019, from operator returns covering Great Britain and excluding the National Lottery. It appeared in the release of May 2020 and was gone from the release of November 2020, without announcement, and has never returned. Survey based estimates continue from elsewhere, on a different basis, and they do not agree with each other either: for 2019 the Commission's licensee headcount was 98,174, the ONS Business Register and Employment Survey gave 84,900 employees, and the DCMS sector estimate gave 76,000 filled jobs. Different populations, different units, same year. |
| How much did the levy raise, and where did it go? | One total, no annual report yet | The statutory levy came into force on 6 April 2025 and was expected to raise £90 million to £100 million a year. The department has stated it raised just under £120 million in its first year. It committed to an annual report on levy finances and none has been published. The Commission's own levy page carries no collected totals. |

## The official cost of harm rests on the lower prevalence figure

The current government estimate of what gambling harm costs in England is an evidence update published by the Office for Health Improvement and Disparities in January 2023. It puts the annual excess direct financial cost to government at £412.9 million and the societal value of health impacts at between £635 million and £1,355.5 million, a combined £1.05 billion to £1.77 billion in 2021-22 prices.

| label | display | value |
|---|---|---|
| Suicide deaths (societal) | £241.1m to £961.7m | 961.7 |
| Depression (government and societal) | £508.0m | 508 |
| Imprisonment | £167.3m | 167.3 |
| Unemployment benefits | £77.0m | 77 |
| Homelessness | £49.0m | 49 |
| Alcohol dependence | £3.5m | 3.5 |
| Illicit drug use, ages 17 to 24 | £1.8m | 1.8 |

**Caveats**

- It is built on the 2018 Health Survey for England, which found 0.4 per cent of adults at PGSI 8 or above. That is the lower of the two contested prevalence figures. Nobody has redone the costing on the higher one.
- The suicide component is not a count of deaths. It applies standardised mortality ratios from a Swedish cohort study to English suicide rates, giving an estimated excess of 117 to 496 deaths a year. The report states that applying the Swedish figures to the English gambling population is a limitation of the analysis. The median age of suicide death in the Swedish sample was 32.5 against 47 in England.
- The report says explicitly that it cannot say the excess cases and costs are caused by harmful gambling, only that this is the best current evidence on the size of the association. In December 2025 the statistics regulator wrote to the department warning that users repeatedly misread that association as causation.
- Its own exclusion list is long: financial harms to gamblers and their families, costs to affected others, healthcare costs of suicidality, rough sleeping, indirect crime costs including victims, lost productivity, relationship harms, and the direct cost of gambling treatment. The report says the total is likely to be underestimated.

## Asked to spend the money, the NHS would not use the data

From April 2026 NHS England commissions the gambling treatment pathway funded by the statutory levy, with regional allocations of £15.90 million in 2026-27 and an indicative £38.62 million and £39.90 million in the two years after. Allocations between regions are not based on gambling harm prevalence. The reason is given in a footnote to the annex.

**Quote**: cite NHS England, letter to integrated care board chief executives, 16 February 2026, text There are significant concerns about the quality of existing data on the prevalence of gambling harms, either due to the methodology used or the fact that studies have been industry funded/facilitated.

## Questions this raises

**How many problem gamblers are there in the UK?**

Two sets of official statistics disagree. The Gambling Survey for Great Britain 2025 puts 2.4 per cent of adults at a PGSI score of 8 or more, which the Gambling Commission grosses up to approximately 1.3 million adults. The accredited Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey 2023/4 puts it at 0.4 per cent, and the Health Survey for England 2021 at 0.3 per cent. An independent review found that survey framing and online self completion explain roughly 5 to 6 percentage points of the wider gap on any PGSI score above zero, leaving about a third unexplained.

**How many people in the UK have died by suicide because of gambling?**

There is no official answer. The only counted figure ever published is 21 suicides across 2001 to 2016 in England and Wales where the death certificate mentioned gambling, and the Office for National Statistics says that is likely to be an undercount. Nothing has been published for 2017 onwards. The widely quoted range of 117 to 496 deaths a year is a modelled excess, produced by applying Swedish mortality ratios to English suicide rates, not a count.

**How much tax does gambling pay in the UK?**

Betting and gaming duties raised £3,831 million in 2025-26, up from £2,116 million in 2014-15. In FY2024-25 the largest single duty was Remote Gaming Duty at £1,162.5 million, which overtook Lottery Duty in 2023-24. Remote Gaming Duty rises from 21 per cent to 40 per cent in April 2026 and Bingo Duty is abolished on the same date.

**How big is the UK gambling industry?**

Gross gambling yield in Great Britain was £16.8 billion in FY2024-25 including the National Lottery, and £12.6 billion excluding lotteries. These are Great Britain figures: Northern Ireland is outside the Gambling Act. Remote gambling is 61.8 per cent of the non lottery total, against 43.8 per cent in FY2015-16. There are 8,148 licensed premises holding 191,325 gaming machines.

**How many betting shops are there in the UK?**

There were 5,669 active betting premises in Great Britain at the end of December 2025, against 9,111 at 31 March 2014, a fall of 37.8 per cent. The comparison starts in 2013 because the Gambling Commission changed the source of its premises data from local authorities to operator returns at that point and advises against comparing across the change. Bingo premises now hold more gaming machines than betting shops do.

**Did the fixed odds betting terminal stake cut work?**

On the measure that exists, it landed immediately. Higher rate Machine Games Duty liabilities fell from £432.7 million in 2018-19 to £31.4 million in 2019-20, a fall of 93 per cent, after the maximum stake dropped from £100 to £2 in April 2019. Whether play moved online cannot be answered from these series. Remote Gaming Duty was already rising before the change and kept rising after it.

**Does the UK count gambling as a cause of bankruptcy?**

No. Gambling does not appear in the Insolvency Service's Guide to Insolvency Statistics. A cause is coded for bankruptcies handled by the official receiver but the guide says it is not suitable for official statistics, and no cause at all is recorded for debt relief orders and individual voluntary arrangements, which are the large majority of individual insolvencies.

**How much does gambling harm cost the UK?**

The current official estimate is £1.05 billion to £1.77 billion a year for England, in 2021-22 prices, published by the Office for Health Improvement and Disparities in January 2023. It rests on a 0.4 per cent prevalence figure from the 2018 Health Survey for England, excludes financial harms to gamblers and their families among much else, and states that it measures association rather than cause. Older figures still in circulation come from an initial 2019 estimate that this update supersedes and whose source document has been removed from gov.uk.


## Sources

- Gambling Commission, Industry Statistics annual report FY2024-25 and quarterly report to Q3 FY2025-26 (https://www.gamblingcommission.gov.uk/statistics-and-research/publication/industry-statistics-annual-report-financial-year-april-2024-to-march-2025) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- Gambling Commission, Gambling Survey for Great Britain annual report 2025, data tables (https://www.gamblingcommission.gov.uk/statistics-and-research/publication/gambling-survey-for-great-britain-annual-report-2025) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- HMRC, UK Betting and Gaming Statistics (https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/uk-betting-and-gaming-statistics) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- HMRC, tax receipts and National Insurance contributions for the UK (https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/hmrc-tax-and-nics-receipts-for-the-uk) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- HMRC, Gambling duty changes, policy paper, 26 November 2025 (https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/changes-to-gambling-duties/gambling-duty-changes) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- Gambling Act 2005, sections 1, 22 and 153 (https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/19/section/22) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- NHS England, Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing, England, 2023/4, gambling behaviour (https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/adult-psychiatric-morbidity-survey/survey-of-mental-health-and-wellbeing-england-2023-24/gambling-behaviour) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- NHS England, Health Survey for England 2021, part 2, gambling behaviour (https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/health-survey-for-england/2021-part-2) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- ONS, Suicides in England and Wales: 2024 registrations (https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/bulletins/suicidesintheunitedkingdom/2024registrations) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- Insolvency Service, monthly individual insolvency statistics (https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/monthly-insolvency-statistics) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- Office for Statistics Regulation, review of the Gambling Survey for Great Britain, 22 May 2025 (https://osr.statisticsauthority.gov.uk/publication/review-of-the-gambling-survey-for-great-britain/) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- Sturgis, Kuha, Howe and Maxineanu, Three Experiments on the Causes of Differences in Gambling Survey Estimates, August 2025 (https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/129116/5/Report_Aug25_v8.pdf) · London School of Economics research report
- OHID, The economic and social cost of harms associated with gambling in England: evidence update 2023 (https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/gambling-related-harms-evidence-review) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- ONS, ad hoc release 008236, suicides where the death certificate mentioned gambling, England and Wales 2001 to 2016 (https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/adhocs/008236numberofsuicideswherethedeathcertificatementionedgambleorgamblingenglandandwales2001to2016) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- Insolvency Service, Guide to insolvency statistics (https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/insolvency-statistics-policy-and-procedures/guide-to-insolvency-statistics) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- NHS England, letter to integrated care board chief executives on the transition to the statutory levy funded gambling harms treatment system, 16 February 2026 (https://humberandnorthyorkshire.icb.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/10.1-AP1-Letter-to-ICBs-re.-Statutory-Gambling-Levy-February-2026-vFinal.pdf) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- Gambling Commission, How we prepare our industry statistics (https://www.gamblingcommission.gov.uk/about-us/guide/how-we-prepare-our-industry-statistics) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- Gambling Commission, guidance on using statistics from the Gambling Survey for Great Britain (https://www.gamblingcommission.gov.uk/about-us/page/guidance-on-using-statistics-from-the-gambling-survey-for-great-britain) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- Sturgis, Assessment of the Gambling Survey for Great Britain, February 2024 (https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/121981/1/Sturgis_Assessment_of_the_gambling_survey_for_great_britain_published.pdf) · London School of Economics research report
- Insolvency Service, Enforcement Outcomes 2023/24 (https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/insolvency-service-enforcement-outcomes-202324) · Open Government Licence v3.0
- DCMS, Statutory gambling levy, and The Gambling Levy Regulations 2025 (https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/statutory-gambling-levy) · Open Government Licence v3.0

## Caveats and data notes

- The money and the harm on this page are not measured to the same standard, and that is the page's subject rather than a defect in it. Industry figures come from operator returns and tax records. Harm figures come from surveys of what people say about themselves.
- The Gambling Survey for Great Britain is official statistics but not accredited. Its publisher states that it is the third year of a new baseline and is not directly comparable with earlier gambling or health surveys, so no figure on this page is used to describe a trend across that break.
- An independent review found a non-negligible risk that the survey substantially overstates the level of gambling and gambling harm, and later quantified part of the cause while leaving about a third of the difference unexplained. The direction of the remaining bias is not established: people experiencing harm may also avoid surveys altogether.
- Gross gambling yield is stakes minus winnings paid out. It is not profit and it is not spending by any single household. The National Lottery is included in the total and shown separately where it matters.
- Premises and machine counts come from operator returns and are not the same as premises licences on the public register, which include applications and pending variations. The Commission's most recent 12 months of statistics are provisional and a share of the underlying returns is apportioned or estimated.
- Employment figures from the Gambling Commission, the ONS and DCMS cover different populations on different bases and are not alternative estimates of one quantity. None is presented here as the number of people who work in gambling.
- Figures attributed to charities, trade bodies and academic studies are labelled as such. They are not official statistics and are not mixed into totals that are.

---

British Resilience Index, a non-partisan UK civic data project. Every figure is
reconciled to its primary official publisher before it is shown. Free to cite with
attribution: https://britishresilienceindex.com